Who has made decisions about the way people eat in the United States? Do they reflect different levels of economic or governmental power? Who would you like to know more about?

The Act stated, "it is hereby declared to be the policy of Congress, as a measure of national security, to safeguard the health and well-being of the National's children and to encourage domestic consumption of nutritious agricultural commodities and other food, by assisting the States, through grants-in-aid and other means, in providing an adequate supply of foods and other facilities for the establishment, maintenance, operation, and expansion of nonprofit school-lunch programs." (Courtesy of the Harry S. Truman Library & Museum)

Science and technology continued to boost farm outputs in the middle of the 20th century, celebrated in artforms ranging from watercolors to comic books. But fears for farmers’ incomes prevailed over concerns for nutrition in the creation of the National School Lunch Act. The authors of the legislation—senators Richard Russell of Georgia and Allen Ellender of Louisiana—insisted the work of feeding school children remain with the USDA. And the Act required schools to use agricultural surpluses when possible. It received the support of farm lobbying organizations including the American Farm Bureau Federation and the National Cooperative Milk Producers Federation.

Published by The National Fertilizer Association in 1951, The Conquest of Hunger was a public service comic strip that celebrated the use of synthetic fertilizers.

This comic calls Native Americans "Indians" and depicts Middle Eastern peoples in stereotypically inaccurate ways.

The Conquest of Hunger (1951)

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Science History Institute

The Conquest of Hunger: Featuring Prosper Plenty and His Magical Chemicals

Commercial efforts to produce frozen foods began in the 1920s, but their products struggled to find a market. Consumers complained of the poor taste, smell, and appearance of frozen foods. The USDA’s Western Regional Research Laboratory in California began studying these products in 1948. They wanted to know the range of temperatures that frozen foods could tolerate (and for what lengths of time), while still retaining their quality. A new analytical technique helped in these time-temperature tolerance studies. Gas chromatography—a procedure that separates and identifies the parts of a mixture—allowed the researchers to identify and quantify the components that produce poor tastes and smells. Because of this work, sales of frozen foods rose from $500 million in 1950 to more than $6 billion by 1966. They became popular not only in homes, but in institutions such as schools and hospitals. 

Beckman Instruments entered the gas chromatograph business in 1956 with the acquisition of the successful Watts Manufacturing Company. Later that year, Beckman Instruments produced its first gas chromatograph, the GC-1, which was intended for laboratory use. Shortly after, Beckman Instruments produced a line of gas chromatographs for industrial use, which offered both automation and customization. These instruments were used by the petroleum industry and in the fight against air pollution.

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Beckman Model GCM Gas Chromatograph

The Western Regional Research Laboratory was one of four established by the USDA in 1938 to identify new uses and markets for the country’s agricultural products. In the 1950s, declining potato consumption led researchers at the Eastern Regional Research Laboratory in Pennsylvania to search for ways to make potatoes more convenient, and to extend their shelf life. They developed a process for cooking, cooling, and drying potatoes into potato flakes . . . or instant mashed potatoes. The researchers also identified chemical additives that prevented browning and rubbery textures. Both the time-temperature tolerance studies on frozen foods and dehydration processes for potatoes have been named National Historic Chemical Landmarks by the American Chemical Society. (Courtesy of the Library of Congress) 

The federal school lunch program was publicly and politically popular. But it was slow to spread into all schools. Fearing too much federal intervention in public education—as well as possible threats to segregation in the South—the Act’s authors left administration of school food programs to state and local authorities. These authorities decided where to distribute surplus foods and which schools participated; this perpetuated existing racial inequalities. Many schools, especially in cities, lacked the facilities they would need to serve school lunches. And the USDA did not enforce the Act’s mandate that poor students must receive free or lower cost meals. By the end of the 1950s, the program was feeding just a third of the students in U.S. schools.

But as the civil rights movement grew from the late ’50s through the ’60s, the inequalities of the program and small reach drew scrutiny from activists and politicians. In 1964, President Johnson launched a War on Poverty. This included the establishment of Medicare and Medicaid, and the creation of a permanent food stamp program. And in 1966, Congress passed the Child Nutrition Act, which provided funds for free lunches and established a school breakfast program. (Courtesy of the Library of Congress) 

In 1969, President Richard Nixon convened a meeting of nutritionists, activists, members of industry, government officials, and others to discuss the persistent challenge of hunger in the United States. The White House Conference on Food, Nutrition and Health was organized by Jean Mayer, a chemist who studied the impact of hunger on the body. The Conference made almost 2,000 recommendations for expanding access to food. Many were adopted. In May 1970, the government doubled the number of children eligible for free school lunches. Federal spending on food relief, including school lunches, increased from $500 million in 1969 to $8 billion in 1975. (Courtesy of the National Archives and Records Administration)

Standards for School Lunches

College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework